A
monarchy is a
form of government in which
sovereignty is actually or nominally embodied in one or several individual(s) reigning until
death or
abdication. They are called the
monarchs.
[1] Forms of monarchy differ widely based on the level of legal autonomy the monarch holds in governance, the method of selection of the monarch, and any predetermined limits on the length of their tenure. When the monarch has no or few legal restraints in state and political matters, it is called an
absolute monarchy and is a form of
autocracy. Cases in which the monarch's discretion is formally limited are called
constitutional monarchies. In
hereditary monarchies, the office is passed through inheritance within a family group, whereas
elective monarchies use some system of voting. Each of these has variations: in some elected monarchies only those of certain pedigrees are eligible, whereas many hereditary monarchies impose requirements regarding the religion, age, gender, mental capacity, and other factors. Occasionally this might create a situation of rival claimants whose
legitimacy is subject to effective election. Finally, there have been cases where the term of a monarch’s
reign is either fixed in years or continues until certain goals are achieved: an invasion being repulsed, for instance. Thus there are widely divergent structures and traditions defining monarchy.
Monarchy was the most common form of government until the 19th century, but it is no longer prevalent. Where it exists, it is now usually a
constitutional monarchy, in which the monarch retains a unique legal and ceremonial role, but exercises limited or no official political power: under the written or unwritten constitution, others have governing authority. Currently, 44 sovereign nations in the world have
monarchs acting as heads of state, 16 of which are
Commonwealth realmsthat recognise Queen
Elizabeth II as their head of state. All
European monarchies are constitutional ones, with the exception of the
Vatican City which is an elective monarchy, but sovereigns in the smaller states exercise greater political influence than in the larger. The monarchs of Cambodia, Japan, and Malaysia "reign, but do not rule" although there is considerable variation in the degree of authority they wield. Although they reign under constitutions, the monarchs of
Brunei,
Morocco,
Oman,
Qatar,
Saudi Arabia and
Swaziland appear to continue to exercise more political influence than any other single source of authority in their nations, either by constitutional mandate or by tradition.
Etymology[edit]
The word "monarch" (
Latin:
monarcha) comes from the
Greek language word
μονάρχης,
monárkhēs (from μόνος
monos, "one, singular", and
ἄρχω árkhō, "to rule" (compare ἄρχων
arkhon, "leader, ruler, chief")) which referred to a single, at least nominally absolute ruler. In current usage the word
monarchy usually refers to a traditional system of hereditary rule, as elective monarchies are rare nowadays.
History[edit]
Tribal kingship is often connected to
sacral functions, so that the king acts as a priest, or is considered of
Divine ancestry. The sacral function of kingship was transformed into the notion of "
Divine right of kings" in the Christian Middle Ages, while the
Chinese,
Japanese and
Nepalesemonarchs continued to be considered
living Gods into the modern period. Since antiquity, monarchy has contrasted with forms of
democracy, where executive power is wielded by assemblies of free citizens. In antiquity, monarchies were
abolished in favour of such assemblies in
Rome (
Roman Republic, 509 BC), and
Athens (
Athenian democracy, 500 BC).
Characteristics and role[edit]
Monarchies are associated with political or sociocultural
hereditary rule, in which monarchs rule for life (although some monarchs do not hold lifetime positions: for example, the
Yang di-Pertuan Agong of
Malaysia serves a five-year term) and pass the responsibilities and power of the position to their child or another member of their family when they die. Most monarchs, both historically and in the modern day, have been born and brought up within a
royal family, the center of the
royal household and
court. Growing up in a royal family (called a
dynasty when it continues for several
generations),
future monarchs are often trained for the responsibilities of expected future rule.
Powers of the monarch[edit]
Today, the extent of the monarch's powers varies:
- In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules as an autocrat, with absolute power over the state and government — for example, the right to rule by decree, promulgate laws, and impose punishments. Absolute monarchies are not necessarilyauthoritarian; the enlightened absolutists of the Age of Enlightenment were monarchs who allowed various freedoms.
- In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch is subject to a constitution. The monarch serves as a ceremonial figureheadsymbol of national unity and state continuity. The monarch is nominally sovereign but the electorate, through theirlegislature, exercise (usually limited) political sovereignty. Constitutional monarchs have limited political power, except in Japan and Sweden, where the constitutions grant no power to their monarchs.[citation needed] Typical monarchical powers include granting pardons, granting honours, and reserve powers, e.g. to dismiss the prime minister, refuse to dissolve parliament, or veto legislation ("withhold Royal Assent"). They often also have privileges of inviolability, sovereign immunity, and an official residence. A monarch's powers and influence may depend on tradition, precedent, popular opinion, and law.
- In other cases the monarch's power is limited, not due to constitutional restraints, but to effective military rule. In the lateRoman Empire, the Praetorian Guard several times deposed Roman Emperors and installed new emperors. The Hellenistic kings of Macedon and of Epiruswere elected by the army, which was similar in composition to the ecclesia of democracies, the council of all free citizens; military service often was linked with citizenship among the male members of the royal house. Military domination of the monarch has occurred in modern Thailand and in medieval Japan (where a hereditary military chief, the shogun, was the de facto ruler, although the Japanese emperor nominally ruled). In Fascist Italy the Savoy monarchy under KingVictor Emmanuel III coexisted with the Fascist single-party rule of Benito Mussolini; Romania under the Iron Guard and Greece during the first months of theColonels' regime were much the same way. Spain under Francisco Franco was officially a monarchy, although there was no monarch on the throne. Upon his death, Franco was succeeded as head of state by the Bourbon heir, Juan Carlos I, who proceeded to make Spain a democracy with himself as a figurehead constitutional monarch.[citation needed]
Person of monarch[edit]
Andorra currently is the world's sole constitutional diarchy or co-principality. Located in the
Pyrenees between
Spain and
France, it has two co-princes: the
Bishop of Urgell (a
prince-bishop) in Spain and the
President of France (inherited
ex officiofrom the French kings, who themselves inherited the title from the counts of Foix). It is the only situation in which an independent country's (co-)monarch is
democratically elected by the citizens of another country.
In a
personal union, separate independent states share the same person as monarch, but each realm has its own crown or monarchy. The sixteen separate
Commonwealth realms are sometimes described as being in a personal union with Queen Elizabeth II as monarch, however, they can also be described as being in a shared monarchy.
A
regent may rule when the monarch is a
minor, absent, or debilitated.
A
pretender is a claimant to an abolished throne or to a throne already occupied by somebody else.
Monarchs often take part in certain ceremonies, such as a
coronation.
Role of monarch[edit]
Ghezo, King of
Dahomey, was under pressure from the British to end the slave trade.
In the Western political tradition, a morally-based,
balanced monarchy is stressed as the ideal form of government, and little reverence is paid to modern-day ideals of egalitarian democracy: e.g.
Saint Thomas Aquinas unapologetically declares: "Tyranny is wont to occur not less but more frequently on the basis of polyarchy [rule by many, i.e. oligarchy or democracy] than on the basis of monarchy." (
On Kingship). However, Thomas Aquinas also stated that the ideal monarchical system would also have at lower levels of government both an aristocracy and elements of democracy in order to create a balance of power. The monarch would also be subject to both natural and divine law, as well, and also be subject to the
Church in matters of religion.
In
Dante Alighieri's
De Monarchia, a spiritualized, imperial Catholic monarchy is strongly promoted according to a
Ghibelline world-view in which the "royal religion of
Melchizedek" is emphasized against the sacerdotal claims of the rival papal ideology.
Titles of monarchs[edit]
Monarchs can have various
titles. Common European titles of monarchs are
emperor or
empress (from
Latin:
imperator or imperatrix),
king or
queen,
grand duke or
grand duchess,
prince or
princess,
duke or
duchess (in that hierarchical order of nobility).
[4] Some
early modern European titles (especially in German states) included
elector (German:
Kurfürst, literally "prince-elector"),
margrave (German:
Markgraf, equivalent to the French title
marquis), and
burgrave (German:
Burggraf, literally "count of the castle"). Lesser titles include
count,
princely count, or
imam (Use in Oman). Slavic titles include
knyazand
tsar (ц︢рь) or
tsaritsa (царица), a word derived from the
Roman imperial title
Caesar.
In non-Europe, monarchs can have various titles too.
Muslim worlds titles of monarchs include
caliph (successor to the Islamic prophet
Muhammad and a leader of the entire Muslim community),
padishah (emperor),
sultan or
sultana,
shâhanshâh (emperor),
shah,
malik (king) or
malikah (queen),
emir (commander, prince) or
emira (princess),
sheikh or
sheikha. East Asian titles of monarchs include
huángdì (emperor or empress regnant),
tiānzǐ (son of heaven),
tennō(emperor) or
josei tennō (empress regnant),
wang (king) or
yeowang (queen regnant),
hwangje (emperor) or
yeohwang(empress regnant). South Asian and South East Asian titles included
mahārāja (emperor) or
maharani (empress),
raja (king) and
rana (king) or
rani (queen) and
ratu (South East Asian queen). Historically,
Mongolic or
Turkic monarchs have used the title
khan and
khagan (emperor) or
khatun and
khanum and
Ancient Egypt monarchs have used the title
pharaoh for men and women. In
Ethiopian Empire, monarchs used title
nəgusä nägäst (king of kings) or
nəgəstä nägäst (queen of kings).
Many monarchs are addressed with particular
styles or manners of address, such as "
Majesty", "
Royal Highness", "
By the Grace of God",
Amīr al-Mu'minīn ("Leader of the Faithful"),
Hünkar-i Khanedan-i Âl-i Osman, "Sovereign of the Sublime House of Osman"),
Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Baginda ("
Majesty"),
Jeonha ("
Majesty"),
Tennō Heika (literally "His Majesty the heavenly sovereign"),
Bìxià ("Bottom of the Steps").
Dependent monarchies[edit]
In
Botswana,
South Africa,
Ghana and
Uganda, the ancient kingdoms and
chiefdoms that were met by the colonialists when they first arrived on the continent are now constitutionally protected as regional and/or sectional entities. Furthermore, in
Nigeria, though the dozens of
sub-regional polities that exist there are not provided for in the current constitution, they are nevertheless legally recognised aspects of the structure of governance that operates in the nation. In addition to these five countries, peculiar monarchies of varied sizes and complexities exist in various other parts of
Africa.
[specify]
Succession[edit]
The rules for selection of monarchs varies from country to country. In constitutional monarchies the rule of succession generally is embodied in a law passed by a representative body, such as a
parliament.
Hereditary monarchies[edit]
In a
hereditary monarchy, the position of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary
order of succession, usually within one
royal family tracing its origin through a historical
dynasty or bloodline. This usually means that the heir to the throne is known well in advance of becoming monarch to ensure a smooth succession.
Primogeniture, in which the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected by rules on gender. Historically "agnatic primogeniture" or "patrilineal primogeniture" was favoured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or
head of family, with sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and
male-line males inheriting before females of the male line.
[5] This is the same as semi-Salic primogeniture. Complete exclusion of females from
dynastic succession is commonly referred to as application of the
Salic law (see
Terra salica).
Before primogeniture was enshrined in European law and tradition, kings would often secure the succession by having their successor (usually their eldest son) crowned during their own lifetime, so for a time there would be two kings in
coregency – a senior king and a junior king. Examples include
Henry the Young King of England and the early
Direct Capetians in France.
Sometimes, however, primogeniture can operate through the female line. In some systems a female may rule as monarch only when the male line dating back to a common ancestor is exhausted.
Sometimes
religion is affected; for example the
British monarch, as head of the
Church of England, is required to be in communion with the Church, although all other former rules forbidding marriage to non-Protestants were abolished when equal primogeniture was adopted in 2013.
In the case of the absence of children, the next most senior member of the collateral line (for example, a younger sibling of the previous monarch) becomes monarch. In complex cases, this can mean that there are closer blood relatives to the deceased monarch than the next in line according to primogeniture. This has often led, especially in Europe in the
Middle Ages, to conflict between the principle of primogeniture and the principle of
proximity of blood.
Other hereditary systems of succession included
tanistry, which is semi-elective and gives weight to merit and
Agnatic seniority. In some monarchies, such as
Saudi Arabia, succession to the throne usually first passes to the monarch's next eldest brother, and only after that to the monarch's children (agnatic seniority).
Elective monarchies[edit]
Appointment by the current monarch is another system, used in
Jordan. It also was used in
Imperial Russia; however, it was changed to semi-Salic soon, because the unreliable realization of the appointment system resulted in
an age of palace revolutions. In this system, the monarch chooses the successor, who is always his relative.
Current monarchies[edit]
Semi-constitutional monarchy
Subnational monarchies (traditional)
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Currently there are 43 nations in the world with a monarch as head of state. They fall roughly into the following categories:
- Commonwealth realms. Queen Elizabeth II is the monarch of sixteen Commonwealth realms (Antigua and Barbuda, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Commonwealth of the Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Canada,Grenada, Jamaica, New Zealand, the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, the Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Solomon Islands, Tuvalu and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland). They have evolved out of the British Empire into fully independent states within theCommonwealth of Nations that retain the Queen as head of state, unlike other Commonwealth countries that are either dependencies, republics or have a different royal house. All sixteen realms are constitutional monarchies and full democracies where the Queen has limited powers or a largely ceremonial role. The Queen is head of the established Protestant Christian Church of England in the United Kingdom, while the other 15 realms do not have an established church.
- Other European constitutional monarchies.
There is generally a Christian religion established as the official church in each of these countries. This is the Lutheran form of
Protestantism in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, while Belgium and Andorra are
Roman Catholic countries. Spain and the Netherlands have no official State religion. Luxembourg, which is very predominantly Roman Catholic, has five so-called
officially recognized cults of national importance (Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, Greek Orthodoxy, Judaism and Islam), a status which gives to those religions some privileges like the payment of a state salary to their priests.
Andorra is unique among all existing monarchies, as it is, by definition, a
diarchy, with the Co-Princeship being shared by the
President of France and the
Bishop of Urgell. This situation, based on historic precedence, has created a peculiar situation among monarchies, as a) both Co-Princes are not of Andorran descent, b) one is elected by common citizens of a foreign country (France), but not by Andorrans as they cannot vote in the French Presidential Elections, c) the other, the bishop of Urgel, is appointed by a foreign head of state, the Pope.
- European constitutional/absolute monarchies. Liechtenstein and Monaco are constitutional monarchies in which the Prince retains many powers of an absolute monarch. For example, the 2003 Constitution referendum which gives the Prince of Liechtenstein the power to veto any law that the Landtag(parliament) proposes and the Landtag can veto any law that the Prince tries to pass. The Prince can hire or dismiss any elective member or government employee from his or her post. However, what makes him not an absolute monarch is that the people can call for a referendum to end the monarchy's reign. The Prince of Monaco has simpler powers but cannot hire or dismiss any elective member or government employee from his or her post, but he can elect theminister of state, government council and judges. Both Albert II and Hans-Adam II have quite a bit of political power, but they also own huge tracts of land and are shareholders in many companies.
- Islamic monarchies. These Islamic monarchs of the Kingdom of Bahrain, the Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, theState of Kuwait, Malaysia, the Kingdom of Morocco, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emiratesgenerally retain far more powers than their European or Commonwealth counterparts. The Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia remain absolute monarchies; the Kingdom of Bahrain, the State of Kuwait and United Arab Emirates are classified as mixed, meaning there are representative bodies of some kind, but the monarch retains most of his powers. The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Malaysia and the Kingdom of Morocco are constitutional monarchies, but their monarchs still retain more substantial powers than European equivalents.
- East Asian constitutional monarchies. The Kingdom of Bhutan, the Kingdom of Cambodia, Japan, the Kingdom of Thailand have constitutional monarchies where the monarch has a limited or ceremonial role. The Kingdom of Bhutan, Japan and the Kingdom of Thailand are countries that were never colonized by European powers, but Japan and the Kingdom of Thailand have changed from traditional absolute monarchies into constitutional ones during the twentieth century, while the Kingdom of Bhutan changed in 2008. The Kingdom of Cambodia had its own monarchy after independence from the French Colonial Empire, which was deposed after the Khmer Rouge came into power and the subsequent invasion by the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. The monarchy was subsequently restored in the peace agreement of 1993.
- Other monarchies. Four monarchies do not fit into one of the above groups by virtue of geography or class of monarchy: the Kingdom of Tonga in Polynesia; the Kingdom of Swaziland and the Kingdom of Lesotho in Africa; and the Vatican City State in Europe. Of these, the Kingdom of Lesotho and the Kingdom of Tonga are constitutional monarchies, while the Kingdom of Swaziland and the Vatican City State are absolute monarchies. The Kingdom of Swaziland is also unique among these monarchies, often being considered a diarchy. The King, or Ngwenyama, rules alongside his mother, the Ndlovukati, as dual heads of state originally designed to be checks on political power. The Ngwenyama, however, is considered the administrative head of state, while the Ndlovukati is considered the spiritual and national head of state, a position which more or less has become symbolic in recent years.
The
Pope is the absolute monarch of the
Vatican City State (different entity from the
Holy See) by virtue of his position as head of the
Roman Catholic Church and Bishop of Rome; he is an elected rather than hereditary ruler and has not to be a citizen of the territory prior to his election by the cardinals.
List of current reigning monarchies[edit]
See also[edit]
- ^ Jump up to:a b Belgium is the only existing popular monarchy — a system in which the monarch's title is linked to the people rather than a state. The title of Belgian kings is not King of Belgium, but instead King of the Belgians. Another unique feature of the Belgian system is that the new monarch does not automatically assume the throne at the death or abdication of his predecessor; he only becomes monarch upon taking a constitutional oath.
References[edit]
- Jump up^ Stuart Berg Flexure and Lenore Carry Hack, editors, Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd Ed., Random House, New York (1993)
- Jump up^ Examples include Oliver Cromwell and Richard Cromwell in the Commonwealth of England, Kim il-Sung and Kim Jong-il in North Korea, the Somoza family in Nicaragua,François Duvalier and Jean-Claude Duvalier in Haiti, and Hafez al-Assad and Bashar al-Assad in Syria.
- Jump up^ For example, the Kennedy family in the United States and the Nehru-Gandhi family in India. See list of political families.
- Jump up^ Meyers Taschenlexikon Geschichte 1982 vol.1 p21
- Jump up^ Murphy, Michael Dean. "A Kinship Glossary: Symbols, Terms, and Concepts". Retrieved 2006-10-05.
- Jump up^ SOU 1977:5 Kvinnlig tronföljd, p. 16.
External links[edit]
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